Anatomy and Physiology: Structure and Function of the Human Body

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Anatomy - investigates how the structure of a body part Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body: correlates with its function. Two Cellular level

Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy) - the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification.

Microscopic Anatomy - the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices.

Cytology - the study of cells

Histology - the study of tissues

Anatomist - expert in anatomy.

The Field of Anatomy:

Systemic Anatomy - studies body organ- systems.

Regional Anatomy - studies body regions.

Surface Anatomy - studies external features, for example, bone projections.

Anatomical Imaging - using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI) to create pictures of internal structures.

The Field of Physiology - Helps to understand the chemistry and physics of the anatomical structures of the body and how they work (function).

Some categories of physiology:

Structure and Function:

Characteristics of Life:

Six levels from chemical to organism:

Language of Anatomy: Introduction to the Human Body

Directional Terms in Anatomy: Essential for describing the relative positions of body structures.

Major Body Cavities

Clinical Divisions

Serous Membranes (Serosa): Thin, double-layered membranes covering walls and organs in the anterior cavities.

Other components:

Specific Serous Membranes:

Radiation-Based Imaging:

Computed Tomography (CT): Uses a computer to analyze multiple cross-sectional X-rays.

Non-Radiation Imaging:

The Role of Energy in Chemical Reactions:

Energy is the ability to do work. Types of energy:

Characteristics of Chemical Reactions:

Concentration of Solutes:

Inorganic versus Organic Compounds:

Common Chemical Formulas in A and P.

Functions of water in the body include:

Water as a Solvent:

A nutrient dissolved in water makes up a solution:

It can be expressed in a variety of ways:

Role of Water in Chemical Reactions:

Acids and Bases:

Organic Biological Macromolecules:

Monomers of major organic molecules:

Monosaccharides:

The shape of proteins:

Nucleic Acids:

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):

Anatomy of Flow:

Homeostasis: The state of dynamic stability of the body's internal environment.

Components of a Homeostatic Control System

Example (Blood Glucose):

Positive Feedback Mechanisms: A mechanism that intensifies a change rather than reversing it.

The internal environment of the cells:

The Cell Membrane and Its Involvement in Transport:

Membrane Proteins:

Transmembrane Proteins:

> Types of Transmembrane Proteins:

Peripheral Proteins:

Transport across the Cell Membrane:

Passive Transport:

Simple vs. Facilitated Diffusion

> Gated channels: limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing. Osmosis and Water Movement

Water Gradient:

Solution Comparisons (Osmolarity):

Tonicity and Cell Volume:

Active transport:

Primary Active Transport:

Secondary Active Transport:

Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis

Exocytosis:

Internal Components of Cells:

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Golgi Apparatus:

Membranous Organelles for Detoxification and Energy Production:

Lysosomes: The Recycling Center

Peroxisomes: The Chemical Neutralizers

Mitochondria: The Energy Transformers

The Cytoskeleton:

Microtubules (The Thickest Filaments)

Microfilaments (The Thinnest Filaments)

Intermediate Filaments

Cell Surface Specializations Microvilli

Cilia

Flagella

The Nucleus

Variations in Cells:

Structure of the Nucleus:

The Nucleoplasm and Nucleolus

DNA Organization and Structure

The Double Helix Structure

Protein Synthesis: From DNA to Protein

The Gene: A specific segment of DNA that holds the instructions to build one single protein.

Genome vs. Proteome:

Transcription: DNA to RNA

RNA Characteristics:

The Three Stages of Transcription:

Translation: RNA to Protein

Key Players:

The Three Stages of Translation:

Introduction to Cell Replication

Terms and definitions:

The Cell Cycle: The sequence of events in a cell's life from its creation until it divides into two new cells.

Interphase (Non-Replicating Phase)

G1 Phase (Gap One): The primary growth phase where the cell produces proteins and carries out normal cellular functions.

Meiosis occurs for reproductive cells

DNA Replication (Occurs in S Phase)

Three phases:

Chromosome Structure

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Cell replication consists of four major phases, followed by cytokinesis: Stages of Mitosis

Cytokinesis Process

Cell Cycle Control and Regulation

Environmental Factors

Internal Checkpoints

Cellular Differentiation: The process by which unspecialized cells become specialized to carry out distinct functions.

Embryonic vs. Adult Stem Cells

Introduction to Tissues

The Four Primary Tissue Types

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

Major components:

Cellular Connections: attachments between cells.

Introduction to Epithelial Tissue:

Terminology:

Specialized Apical Features

Classification of Epithelia

One. Cell Shapes

Two. Cell Layers

Simple Epithelium: A single layer of epithelial cells where every cell touches the basal lamina.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Other Stratified Types

Glandular Epithelia: A gland is a structure (unicellular or multicellular) that synthesizes and secretes chemicals.

Secrete mucus, sweat, saliva, and breastmilk Exocrine Gland Structure:

Simple glands

Glandular Products:

Anatomy of Connective Tissue: Unlike epithelia, cells are widely dispersed and rarely touch.

Major Functions:

Classification of Connective Tissues

Loose Connective Tissue

Dense Connective Tissue

Supportive Connective Tissue: Solid or semisolid; includes bone and cartilage.

Types of Cartilage:

Types of Bone:

Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissues:

Fiber Types

Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

Smooth Muscle

Introduction to Nervous Tissue

Cell Types of Nervous Tissue

Structure of a Neuron

Two. Glial Cells (Glia): Essential supportive cells that enable neurons to function properly.

Body Membranes:

Mucous membranes - Line body cavities that are exposed to the external environment.

Cutaneous membrane - is the skin and covers the body.

Synovial membranes - line joints.

Components of the Integumentary System:

Layers of the Skin:

Skin Layers: Consists of three main layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis (subcutaneous layer).

The Epidermis: The most superficial layer of the skin

Layers of the Epidermis (Deep to Superficial)

Stratum Spinosum: Eight to ten layers of "football-shaped" keratinocytes joined by desmosomes to resist friction.

Stratum Granulosum: Cells flatten and fill

Stratum Lucidum: Found only in "thick skin" (palms and soles).

Stratum Corneum: The most superficial layer (fifteen to thirty layers of dead keratinocytes).

Layers of the Dermis:

Reticular Layer: Deeper, thicker layer made of dense irregular connective tissue.

The Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer):

Accessory Structures of the Skin:

Anatomy of Hair:

Components of hair from deep to superficial:

Hair Layers:

Nails: Composed of keratinized epidermal cells. Components of Nail:

Two types of sweat glands:

Apocrine Glands:

Functions of the Integumentary System:

Skin Injury and Repair:

Burns: Occur when damage is caused by heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals.

Classification:

Wound Healing Stages:

Skin as a Diagnostic Aid:

Skin Cancer:

Central Cyanosis

The Skeletal System: Human body has two hundred six bones. Bone Function:

Cartilage Tissue:

Three Types of Cartilage:

Bone Tissue: Solid connective tissue

Red versus Yellow Mallow:

Bone Cells (The Anatomy of Bone Cells) Anatomy of ...

Anatomy of a Typical Bone:

Bone Markings: The surface features of bones.

Type of Ossification:

Endochondral Ossification:

Growth and Remodeling

Bone Remodeling: The changes bones go through on a daily basis.

Bone Repair (Fracture Healing)

Assisting bone repair:

Imbalances:

Hormonal control:

Calcium and Vitamin D

Vitamin D Synthesis

Exercise and Bone Density

Osteoporosis: Characterized by a decrease in bone mass with age.

Skeletal System Overview

Evolutionary Specialization:

Major Divisions of the Skeleton

The Appendicular Skeleton (one hundred twenty-six bones): Includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs.

The Skull: Structure and Cavities

Major Subdivisions:

Bones of the Skull

Facial Bones

Sutures:

The Orbit (Eye Socket):

The Nasal Cavity and Conchae: Nasal cavity is bordered by maxillae and nasal bones.

The Oral Cavity (Mouth): Formed by maxillae, mandible, and palatine bones.

Lateral View of the Skull

Posterior View of the Skull

The Brain Case (Cranial Cavity)

The Three Cranial Fossae

Midsagittal Section of Skull:

Skull Development and Aging of the Skull:

Application: Fusion Disorders: Cleft lip: Results from partial or complete failure of upper lip to fuse together.

Auditory Ossicles: Three tiny bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) located within the temporal bone.

The Vertebral Column (Spine): A flexible column of vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs.

Regions of the Vertebral Column

Curvatures and Disorders

General Structure of a Vertebra

Processes:

Regional Characteristics

Lumbar Vertebrae (L one through L five):

Sacrum and Coccyx

Intervertebral Discs

The Sternum (Breastbone) Parts of the Sternum

The Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage): The bony and cartilaginous structure forming the thorax (chest).

The Ribs: Twelve pairs of curved, flat bones that articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae.

Structure of

Classification of Ribs

The Appendicular Skeleton:

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle: the set of bones that attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.

The Clavicle (Collarbone): S-shaped long bone; the only horizontal long bone in the body; loosely-anchored

Key Functions:

Fossae (Depressions):

The Upper Limb: Brachium (Arm)

Bones of the Forearm: Radius and Ulna

The Radius (Lateral): The bone on the "thumb side" of the forearm.

Radioulnar Joints:

Bones of the Wrist and Hand

The Metacarpals and Phalanges

Fractures of Upper Limb Bones:

Function: A largely immobile, weight-bearing structure specialized for stability.

Boundaries of the Pelvis

Biological Sex Differences

Hormone-Induced Pelvic Changes

The Thigh Region:

Distal Femur:

Proximal Femur:

The Patella (Kneecap): The largest sesamoid bone (bone embedded in a tendon).

The Lower Leg Region:

The Fibula: The slender, lateral bone; non-weight-bearing; used for muscle attachment

Bones of the Foot: Tarsal Bones (Seven Bones) Proximal row of tarsals

Metatarsals and Phalanges

Arches of the Foot:

Synovial Joint Movements

Flexion, Extension, and Hyperextension

Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction

Specialized Movements by Region Forearm (Radius and Ulna)

Foot and Ankle

Mandible (Jaw) and Scapula (Shoulder Blade)

The Thumb

Overview

The document explores the organization, structure, and function of the human body, examining key concepts in anatomy and physiology, including the chemical, cellular, and organ levels. It emphasizes the importance of understanding structural relationships to grasp bodily functions better.

Key Points

1Anatomy studies body structures and organization
2Physiology examines how body systems function and interact
3Structural organization is categorized into levels from chemical to organism
4Directional terms and anatomical positions provide clarity in medical terminology
5Imaging techniques aid in visualizing internal body structures.

Details

Category: Biology and Natural Sciences

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