Aquinas' Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

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Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Aquinas' Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy

For Thomas Aquinas, as for Aristotle, doing moral philosophy is thinking as generally as possible about what I should choose to do (and not to do), considering my whole life as a field of opportunity (or misuse of opportunity). Thinking as general as this concerns not merely my own opportunities, but the kinds of good things that any human being can do and achieve, or be deprived of. Thinking about what to do is conveniently labeled "practical", and is concerned with what and how to acquire and do what one intelligently and reasonably can (i) to achieve intelligible goods in one's life and the lives of other human beings and their environment, and (ii) to be of good character and live a life that as a whole will have been a reasonable response to such opportunities.

Political philosophy is, in one respect, simply that part or extension of moral philosophy which considers the kinds of choice that should be made by all who share in the responsibility and authority of choosing for a community of the comprehensive kind called political. In another respect, it is a systematic explanatory account of the forms of political arrangement that experience and empirical observation show are available, with their characteristic features, outcomes, and advantages (and disadvantages and bad aspects and consequences). Though in form descriptive and contemplative, and thus non-practical, this aspect of political philosophy remains subordinate, in its systematization or conceptual structure, to the categories one finds necessary or appropriate when doing moral and political philosophy as it should be done, that is, as practical thinking by one whose every choice (even the choice to do nothing now, or the choice to do moral or political philosophy) should be a good use of opportunity.

Moral and political philosophy for Aquinas, then, is (one) the set or sets of concepts and propositions which, as principles and precepts of action, pick out the kinds of conduct (that is, chosen action) that are truly intelligent and reasonable for human individuals and political communities, together with (two) the arguments necessary to justify those concepts and propositions in the face of doubts, or at least to defend them against objections. It is a fundamentally practical philosophy of principles which direct us towards human fulfillment (flourishing) so far as that happier state of affairs is both constituted and achievable by way of the actions (chosen conduct) that both manifest and build up the excellences of character traditionally called virtues. If one must use a post-Kantian jargon, it is both "teleological" and "deontic", and not more the one than the other.

One. Interpretations and method

One point one. Is the notion of "distinctive human function" foundational for Aquinas?

One point two. Is the identification of "man's last end" foundational for Aquinas?

Two point one. Precondition: capacity for self-determination by free choices

Two point three. At the origin of Ought

Two point five. The other basic human goods

Two point seven. Only incipiently moral

Three point one. Conscience

Two point four. Some examples

Two point one. Specified by principles identifying the reasonable "mean"

One point one. Is the notion of "distinctive human function" foundational for Aquinas?

One point two Is the identification of "man's last end" foundational for Aquinas?

One point two point one Philosophy and theology in Aquinas' theory of morality and politics

Two. Practical reason's first principles

Two point one. Precondition: capacity for self-determination by free choices

Two point one point one. Choice, intention and act-descriptions

Two point two. Context: the open horizon of human life as a whole

Two point three. At the origin of Ought

Two point four. First principles of practical reason

Two point four point one. First principles are insights into the data of experience and understood possibility

Two point four point two. Their Oughts are not inferred from any Is

Two point four point three A sample first principle: Knowledge is pursuit-worthy

Two point five The other basic goods

Two point six Known by (or from) inclination?

Two point seven Only incipiently moral

Three. Moral principles

Three point one. Conscience

Three point two. The supreme moral principle

Three point two point one. The fuller version: the place of the transcendent

Three point three. Moral precepts are further specifications of this master principle and its immediate specifications

Three point four Some examples

Three point four point one Homicide

Three point four point two Adultery and other kinds of act contrary to the good of marriage

Three point four point three Lying

Three point four point four Exceptionless negative norms: more urgent though not all or always more important

Four. Virtues

Four point one Specified by principles identifying the reasonable "mean"

Four point two Virtue can also be a source, rather than conclusion, of moral judgment

Four point two point one The interdependence of the virtues

Four point three Virtue's priority not reducible to self-fulfillment

Four point four The cardinal virtues

Four point four point one Prudentia and love

Four point four point two Justice

Four point four point three Fortitudo and temperantia

Four point five "Virtue ethics"

Five. Political community

Five point one point one. Groups

Five point two. Political common good and political community relativized

Six. The state a "complete community" with "mixed" and "limited" government

Six point one. Four kinds of limitation on state government and law

Six point two Limited government's forms: "political" and "regal"

Six point three State authority is neither paternalistic nor divine

Six point four The state shares its authority with another "complete community"

Six point four point one Non-dependence and non-subjection of secular authority.

Six point four point two Heresy, unbelief and religious freedom.

Seven. Law.

Seven point one Law is an appeal to reason.

Seven point two Law is for a political community's common good.

Seven point two point one The Rule of Law

Seven point three Law is posited by the responsible authority

Seven point four Law needs to be coercive

Seven point five Unjust law and just revolution

Overview

The article examines Aquinas' moral and political philosophy, detailing his views on ethics, the role of virtues, and the nature of political community and law. It highlights the practical implications of his thoughts on moral and political choices for individuals and societies.

Key Points

1Aquinas emphasizes the relationship between moral philosophy and practical reasoning
2His political philosophy extends moral considerations to the collective responsibilities of communities
3Virtue is necessary for human fulfillment and is central to moral actions
4Legal principles should align with reason and the common good
5Aquinas critiques interpretations that overlook the metaphysical foundations of his ethical theories.

Details

Authors: John Finnis
Category: Humanities

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