Four point two Instruction Execution Steps
Four point four Hardwired and Microprogrammed Control
Four point six Instruction Hazards
Four point eight Impact on Instruction Sets
Four point ten PRAM and VLSI Models
Four point twelve Keywords Four point thirteen Self-Assessment Questions
Four point fifteen Reference
Four point one point one Components of a Processing Unit
Four point one point two Control Path and Data Path
Control Path: Comprises the Control Unit and supporting logic.
Four point one point three Register Transfer Operations
Types of Register Transfers: Data Transfer Operations:
Micro-Operation Execution:
Four point one point four Functional Flow of the Processing Unit
Four point two Instruction Execution Steps
Four point two point one Fetch, Decode, Execute Cycle
Four point two point two Operand Fetch and Result Storage
Four point two point three Control Signal Generation
Control Unit Approaches: Hardwired Control:
Four point two point four Instruction Timing and Synchronization
Synchronization Challenges: Handling memory access delays
Four point three Multiple Bus Organization
Four point three point one Single Bus vs. Multiple Bus Architecture
Multiple Bus Architecture:
Types of Buses in Multi-bus Systems:
Four point three point two Benefits of Multiple Bus Systems
Better Support for Pipelining and Multicore:
Fault Isolation and Reliability:
Four point three point three Interconnection and Data Flow Control
Data Flow Control Mechanisms:
Synchronization Challenges:
Four point three point four Bus Arbitration and Prioritization
Types of Arbitration Techniques: Daisy Chaining (Serial Arbitration):
Rotating Priority (Round Robin):
Four point four Hardwired and Microprogrammed Control
Four point four point one Concept of Control Unit
Functions of the Control Unit:
Types of Control Units: Hardwired Control Unit:
Microprogrammed Control Unit:
Four point four point two Hardwired Control Unit Design and Operation
Four point four point three Microprogrammed Control Organization
Types of Microinstructions: Horizontal Microinstruction:
Vertical Microinstruction:
Four point five Pipelining Basics
Four point five point one Concept of Instruction Pipelining
Four point five point two Pipeline Stages and Throughput
Four point five point three Pipeline Performance Metrics
Cycle per Instruction (CPI):
Four point five point four Advantages and Limitations of Pipelining
Efficient Resource Utilization:
Limitations: Pipeline Hazards:
Four point six Instruction Hazards
Four point six point one Structural Hazards
Four point six point two Data Hazards
Types of Data Hazards: RAW (Read After Write) - True dependency:
WAW (Write After Write) - Output dependency:
Four point six point three Control Hazards
Solutions: Branch Prediction:
Four point six point four Techniques to Minimize Hazards
Dynamic Scheduling (e.g., Tomasulo's algorithm):
Branch Prediction Units (BPUs):
Four point seven Data Hazards
Four point seven point one Read After Write (RAW) Hazards
Four point seven point two Write After Read (WAR) and Write After Write (WAW) Hazards
Example: WRITE R one ; Instruction one
Four point seven point three Data Forwarding and Hazard Resolution
Other Hazard Resolution Techniques: Pipeline Stalling (Bubble Insertion):
Four point seven point four Compiler-Level Hazard Mitigation
Techniques: Instruction Scheduling:
Four point eight Impact on Instruction Sets
Four point eight point one Instruction Set Design and Pipeline Compatibility
Pipeline-Friendly ISA Features: Fixed-Length Instructions:
Importance: Efficient ISAs ensure low CPI (Cycles Per Instruction) in pipelines.
Four point eight point two Influence of Hazards on ISA Development
Design Responses to Hazards: Branch Delay Slots:
Separate Load/Store Instructions:
Reduced Instruction Complexity:
Four point eight point three RISC vs. CISC Instruction Set Implications
Emphasizes pipeline optimization.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer):
Trade-Off: RISC is more suited for deep pipelines and superscalar architectures.
Four point eight point four Pipeline-Oriented Instruction Encoding
Four point nine Parallel Computer Models
Four point nine point one Concept of Parallel Processing
Four point nine point two Flynn's Taxonomy: SISD, SIMD, MISD, MIMD
Four point nine point three Multiprocessor and Multicomputer Architectures Multiprocessor Systems:
Distributed Memory Systems: Each processor has its own local memory.
Four point ten PRAM and VLSI Models
Four point ten point one Introduction to PRAM (Parallel Random Access Machine) Model
Four point ten point two PRAM Variants: EREW, CREW, CRCW
One. EREW (Exclusive Read Exclusive Write):
Two. CREW (Concurrent Read Exclusive Write):
Three. CRCW (Concurrent Read Concurrent Write):
Requires a conflict resolution policy for writes:
Communication Constraints:
Gate Delay and Clock Speed:
Modularity and Scalability:
Power Consumption and Heat Dissipation:
Applications of VLSI Model:
Four point ten point four Role of VLSI in Parallel Processing Architectures
Contributions of VLSI to Parallel Architectures: Multi-Core Processors:
GPUs and Tensor Processing Units (TPUs):
Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs):
Advantages of VLSI in Parallel Processing: Compact and energy-efficient hardware.
Four point eleven. Summary
Four point twelve. Keywords (One-line Definitions)
Four point thirteen. Self-Assessment Questions
Four point fourteen. Case Study