Module One Fundamentals of Computer Structure and Instruction Set
One point two. Functional Units
One point four. Bus Structures
One point six. Number Representation
One point eight. Memory Locations and Addressing
One point twelve. Self-Assessment Questions
One point fourteen. Reference
One point one point one. Classification of Computers: Analog, Digital, and Hybrid Analog Computers:
One point one point two. Micro, Mini, Mainframe, and Supercomputers
One point one point three. General-Purpose vs. Special-Purpose Computers
One point one point four. Embedded Systems
One point two. Functional Units
One point two point one Input Unit
Key Functions of the Input Unit:
One point two point two Output Unit
Main Roles of the Output Unit:
One point two point three Memory Unit
Memory Hierarchy Includes:
Functions of the Memory Unit:
One point two point four Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Two Main Operations Performed by the ALU:
Internal Components of the ALU:
Functions and Significance:
One point two point five Control Unit
Instruction Fetching: Retrieves instructions from memory.
One point two point six Communication Between Units
One point three. Basic Operational Concepts
One point three point one. Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
One point three point two. Data Flow between Units
Mechanisms Facilitating Data Flow:
One point three point three. Instruction Execution Steps
Detailed Steps in Instruction Execution:
Three. Operand Fetch, if needed:
Six. Update Program Counter:
One point three point four. Control Signals and Timing
What Are Control Signals?
Types of Control Signals:
Two. External Control Signals:
Timing and Synchronization:
. Synchronous versus Asynchronous Operations:
One point four. Bus Structures
One point four point one. Data Bus, Address Bus, and Control Bus
Examples of Control Signals:
One point four point two Single Bus and Multiple Bus Organization
One. Single Bus Organization
Two. Multiple Bus Organization
One point four point three Bus Arbitration and Control
Types of Bus Arbitration:
Two. Distributed Arbitration
One point four point four Bus Performance Considerations
Key Factors Influencing Bus Performance:
Three. Data Transfer Protocol
Five. Latency and Throughput
Six. Use of Buffers and Caches
One point five Instruction Formats
One point five point one Components of an Instruction
One point five point two Operation Code (Opcode) and Operand Specification Opcode:
Types of Operand Formats:
One point five point three Types of Instruction Formats (Fixed, Variable, Hybrid)
Two. Variable-Length Format:
One point five point four Example of Instruction Representation
One point six Number Representation
One point six point one Binary, Octal, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Systems Binary (Base-two):
Hexadecimal (Base-sixteen):
One point six point two Signed Magnitude Representation
One point six point three one's and two's Complement Representation one's Complement:
One point six point four Floating-Point Representation
One point seven Arithmetic Operations on Signed and Unsigned Data
One point seven point one Addition and Subtraction Unsigned Addition:
Underflow (Floating-point):
One point seven point three Multiplication and Division
One point seven point four Arithmetic Logic Unit Operations
One point eight Memory Locations and Addressing
One point eight point one Concept of Memory Cells and Words
One point eight point two Addressing Techniques (Immediate, Direct, Indirect)
Three. Indirect Addressing:
One point eight point three Register and Indexed Addressing
One point eight point four Effective Address Calculation
One point nine Memory Read/Write Operations
One point nine point one Memory Read Cycle
One point nine point two Memory Write Cycle
One point nine point three Memory Access Time and Cycle Time
One point nine point four Cache Memory and Performance
One point eleven Keywords
One point twelve Self-Assessment Questions
One point thirteen Case Study