The Philippines: A Past Revisited From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War

The Philippines: A Past Revisited

From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War

Socialist Stories

Colonial Scholarship. The Task at Hand. Motivators of History. The Inarticulate in History. Redressing the Imbalance. Limitations and a Beginning. Rediscovering the Past. The Unifying Thread. The Motive Force.

Society in Transition. Unity in Feudal Shell. The Moorish Conquest. The Catholic Monarchs. The New Tastes of Europe. Primitive Accumulation. Mercantilism. Conquest as Business. The Religious Justification. Kings and Popes. The Patronato Real. The Religious Garb. Friars versus Encomenderos. The Great Debate. Resolution of the Conflict. The Elections. Conquest Legitimized.

CHAPTER THREE - Baranganic Societies

Proto-Anthropologists. Aborting Historical Trend. Pre-Spanish Settlements. Subsistence Economies. Transitional Societies. Administrators not Rulers. The Dependent Population. Slavery - A Misnomer. Insights from Other Experiences. Concepts of Property. Disintegration of Communalism. The Resultant Social System. Summary.

Crown and Conquistador. Origins of the Encomienda. Taming the Encomiendas. Philippine Encomienda not a Land Grant. Abuses of the Encomenderos. Administrative Agencies. Encomienda and Hacienda. Instruments of Pacification. The Tribute. Forced Labor. The Bandala. Divide and Rule. The Intermediaries.

Colonial Outpost. Economic Neglect. Moves for Abandonment. The Compromise. Plural Economies. The Chinese Role. Reducciones. Population Centers. Acceleration of Stratification. Colonial Intermediaries. Third Prop of Power. Appropriation of Communal Holdings. Resultant Stratifications.

Spiritual and Temporal Sovereigns. Clerical Ascendancy. Mission Rivalries. Property Acquisitions. Mode of Acquisition. From Partners to Landlords. Outright Land-grabbing. Pattern of Land Tenancy. Seeds of Discontent. Friar Abuses. Side-lines and other Abuses. Economic Power. Commercial Activities. Political Power. Union of Church and State. "Warehouse of Faith". Friar Supremacy. Official Complaints. Gubernatorial Casualties. Competing Explorers and Oppressors. Conflict Over Land Titles. From Individual to Common Grievance. Transformation in Consciousness. From Accessory to Principal Apparatus.

The Landscape Reviewed. Early Resentments. Early Resistance. Winning the Chiefs. Economic Roots of Nativism. Tamblot. Bankaw and Tapar. Labor Conscription. Sumuroy. Tricky Dabao. Opportunities for the Chiefs. New Stage in Native Resistance. The

Maniago "Revolt". Lara's Maneuvers. Change of Heart. The Non-revolt. Middlemen of Power. Pampano Collaboration. Malong - New Ambitions. Mass Participation. Gumapos. Religion and Rebellion. A Taste for Titles. The Longest Revolt. Mountain Communities. Negotiations Conducted. Beyond Dago- hoy. Anti-clerical Feelings. The British Interlude. Silang - Ilustrado Proto-type. Common Basis of Action. Defender of King and Church. Messianic Tendencies. Changing Masters. Elite Servility. British Puppet. A Step in Political Awakening.

Satellization of Spain. Anglo-Chinese Colony. Solvent of Baranganic Society. English Penetration. Infiltrating the Mercantilist Curtain. Economic Re-thinking. Emergence from Isolation. Economic Transformation. Manila Hemp. Beginnings of the Sugar Bloc. End of the Tobacco Monopoly. The Social Transformation. Chinese Mestizos. Mestizo Progress. Re-enter the Chinese. The Shift to Landowning. Rise of Haciendas. Land-grabbing. Social Rearrangements. The New Principalia.

Spread of Liberalism. The Government Monopolies. Against the Principales. Illusory Equality. Plebeian Revolt. Victory of the Principales. Advance and Retreat. Sense of Racial Equality. Hermano Pule. Origins of Colorums. Repercussions. Economic Dislocations. Foreign Ascendancy. Cultural Changes. Intellectual Ferment. Secularization and Filipinization. Cavite - eighteen seventy-two. Against the Peninsulars. Fighting the Friars as Spaniards. Setting the Stage.

The New Filipinos. The Reform Movement. The Propaganda Movement. Assimilation and Representation. Reformist Demands. Rizal's Liga. The Split. Ambivalent Classes. Urban Ideas, Rural Masses. Urban

Sense of Solidarity. Depression in Countryside. The Land Question. Immediate Causes. Convergence of Grievances. The Katipunan. Bonifacio. Influence of Plaridel. Historic Initiative of the Masses. Common Denominator. Bonifacio - a Synthesis. Inchoate Ideology. Ilustrado Imprint.

Separatism Proclaimed. Propaganda and Expansion. Betrayal. "The Die is Cast". The Revolt Spreads. Reign of Terror. Swelling Forces of Revolt. The Plot Begins. Pre-emptive Leadership. The Plot Thickens. Character Assassination. Undermining the Katipunan. "Cavitismo". The Power Struggle. The Triumph of Cavitismo. Bonifacio Outmaneuvered. Ilustrado Syndrome. Sharing Spoils and Honors. Rival Power Centers. Contrite Turncoats. The Mock Trial. Bonifacio's Role Appraised. The Long Trek to Compromise. Reformist Atavism. The Right Credentials. The Bargain. The Logic of Tejeros. Negation of Pugad Lawin. The Revolutionaries Repudiated. Quarrel Over Spoils. The Hongkong Exiles. The Struggle Continues. The People's Fury. Katipunan Revival. During the Hongkong Sojourn. Aguinaldo Capitulated: The People Did Not.

The New Protagonist. The Offer. The Junta Decides. Leading the Repudiated. Four Major Forces on the Scene. Manifestations of Mendicancy. Spaniards and Ilustrados. Paterno, et. al. Protectorate Proclaimed. Meaning of Aguinaldo Moves. Undercutting Other Resistance Leaders. The People's Participation. Buying Time. The Sell-out. Aguinaldo's Roster of Eminence. The Directing Hands. Military Successes. People's Victory. Ilustrado Ascendancy. The Religious Aspect. Pomp and Ceremony. The First Acts. Vacillation and Opportunism. Aguinaldo's "Adjustments". Reluctant Foe. The "Autonomists". Biak-na-bato Repeated.

Another Obstacle. Bonifacio's Fate Repeated. Another Manifestation of Mendicancy. The Long Trek. Wishful Thinking. Surcease at Palanan. The Contrast. The Second Betrayal. Exile Among his People.

Negotiating for the Future. Leading Collaborators. More Collaborators. Paterno and Buencamino. Bonifacio's Detractors Exposed. From Deception to Myth. The Americanistas. Resistance Belittled. Statehood, U.S.A., nineteen hundred. Licensed Political Parties. Illegitimacy of Leadership. Official History. The Original Vietnamization. Suppression and Atrocities. Reconcentration. Casualties and Losses. Anti-Nationalist Laws. Religion and Nationalism. The Philippine Independent Church.

Mass Support. The New Katipunan. Amigo Act. Faustino Guillermo. Macario Sakay. The Tagalog Republic. Suspension of the Writ. Sanctuaries and Supplies. Ilustrado War and Peoples' Wrath. Salami Tactics. The Trap is Set. Death of a People's Hero. Resistance in Bicol. Resistance in the North. The Ricarte Movement. Nativistic Revival. The Magic Box. Apo Ipe. Social Goals in Religious Garb. Folk Hero. Papa Isio. Anti-foreign, Anti-elite. Dwindling Support. The "Republic of Negros". Pulajanes in Cebu. Pulajanes in Leyte. Dios-Dios in Samar. Fighting Style. Control of the Countryside. Spirit of the Revolution Alive.

Rationalizations of Expansionism. Economic Roots. The Philippine Role. In Search of a Patron. The Catholic Interest. The "Anti-Imperialists". The Real Debate. A Clash of Interests. Taft's Role. Servicing American Business. "Philippines for the Filipinos". Philippine Status Clarified. The Cooper Act tectionist Triumph. Settling Down to Business. Shoulder- ing the Costs of Exploitation. Eliminating Competition. The Payne-Aldrich Act. Friar Lands and Sugar Investors. The San Jose Estate Transaction. The Land Policy. The Triumph of American Business. One. Sugar. Two. Copra. Three. The Hemp Bonanza. The Manila Americans. Consumption Habits.

Pacification Through Education. The New Invasion. The Opening Wedge. Handmaiden of Colonial Policy. Myths of Colonialism. The New Intermediaries. Caciques Retained. The Debating Club. Progress of Filipinization. Roots of Philippine Politics. Caught in the Middle. Imperatives of Party Life. Dichotomy of Public and Private Views. Pro-forma Opposition. Office Not Independence. Secret Fears. Private Maneuvers. Quezon's Real Views. Rationale of the Junkets. Quezon versus Osmeña. Reconciliation. Anti-Americanism in nineteen twenty-three. The Old Refrain. The Missioners Exposed. Political Brokers. Contemporary Ring. Patronage. Hedging on Independence. "Friends" of Independence. Enemies of Independence. Pro and Anti. Ominous Prediction. Same Dog, Different Collar. Con-Con thirty-four. A Colonial Document. Transition to Neo-Colonialism.

Growing Unrest. Exports and Tenancy. Land Tenure System. Tenants and Rural Workers. The Friar Lands. Minor Messiahs. The Colorums. "Bread and Freedom". Tayug nineteen thirty-one. The Grievances. Official Reactions. The First Labor Groups. New Slogans. Political Adjuncts. Peasant Unionization. Unions and Politics. International Contacts. The Communist Party. Outlawing of the CPP. The nineteen twenty-nine Crash. Peasant Actions. Strike Fever. Tangulan. Asedillo and Encallado. Sakdalism. Anticipating Goals of Future Protests. Placards for All Seasons. Opportunism of Ramos. The Outbreak. Milestone in Politicization. Tempo of Protest. Ominous Slogans. Don Perico. Left Ideology, Elite Status. "Social Justice".

To Placate and to Reassure. Preaching and Practice. The Reaction. Private Armies. Focus on Central Luzon. International Fascist Incursions. Popular Front. Escalating Tensions. On the Eve of War.

From Rebellion to Revolution. Identity and Hostility. Inputs of Experience. Unity and Division. Transmutation of the Struggle. Distorted Perceptions. From Tojo to MacArthur. Freezing the Colonial Structure. Poverty-breeding Society. Relations of Dependence. Limitations on Consciousness. History and Consciousness.

Preface

In recent years, quite a number of scholars have come out with specialized studies on different areas of Philippine history. The authors of these books, brochures, articles, and research projects examined primary and original sources and distilled the results of previous efforts. I am indebted to them for many an insight into past events. But to my knowledge, no basic framework has so far been advanced which would incorporate these fresh findings into a new view of Philippine history. My work is an attempt in this direction. It is the purpose of this book to make the past reusable for present tasks and future goals. I have relied for the facts on these specialized studies as well as on the general histories. I make no claims to new findings, only new interpretations.

The Filipino reader may find it somewhat surprising that I have chosen to use the word native (up to Chapter nine) to refer to the indigenous inhabitants of the Philippines. I trust that they will in this instance discard any pejorative associations attached to the term. It serves merely as a convenient designation until that period in history when the word Filipino can be used in its correct context, which is when an emerging nation appropriated for itself a name which used to apply only to Philippine-born Spaniards. In other words, I began to use Filipino only when the Filipino people started to think of themselves as such.

The reader will note that all foreign words - and these include those in the local dialects - are italicized only on first use.

Towards a People's History

Decades have passed since Filipino historians felt the initial impulse to rewrite Philippine history from the point of view of the Filipino. The discovery that some accepted facts of history were actually apocryphal, the growing realization that certain foreign sources which used to be the staple of history books were flawed by bias, and, during periods of nationalist ferment, the Filipinos' own heightening awareness of their separate national identity - all these spurred recurring attempts to revisit the past. More recently, the intensified thrust of nationalist forces in Philippine society projected the necessity of establishing a new framework for Philippine history.