MODULE twelve INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
MODULE twelve INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
One. HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The process of international organization had its origins in the nineteenth century, largely in Europe. Innovations associated with the rise of industrialism and the introduction of new methods of transport and communication stimulated the creation of special-purpose agencies, usually called public international unions, designed to facilitate the collaboration of governments in dealing with economic, social, and technical problems. Notable among these were the International Telegraphic Union, eighteen sixty-five, and the Universal Postal Union, eighteen seventy-four, which survived to become specialized agencies of the United Nations system, the former under the title International Telecommunication Union, after World War Two. In the political field, an effort to institutionalize the dominant role of the great powers of Europe was undertaken at the Congress of Vienna in eighteen fifteen.
While the resultant Concert of Europe did not assume the character of a standing political organization, the same pattern functioned until World War One as the framework for a system of occasional great-power conferences which lent some substance to the idea that the European family of states constituted an organized entity. This concept was broadened by the Hague Conferences of eighteen ninety-nine and nineteen zero seven, which admitted small states as well as great powers, and extra-European as well as European states, to participation in collective political deliberations. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the establishment of the Pan American Union and the initiation of a series of inter-American conferences reinforced the Monroe Doctrine and Simón Bolívar's pronouncements by giving institutional expression to the idea that the states of the Western Hemisphere constituted a distinct subgroup within the larger multi-state system.
These nineteenth-century beginnings provided, in large measure, the basis for the phenomenal development of international organization since World War One. Certain distinctions which emerged during this period-between political and non-political agencies, between the status of great powers and that of small states, between regional and geographically undefined organizations-were to prove significant in the later course of international organization. Basic patterns of institutional structure and procedure were evolved.
The trend toward broadening the conception of international organization to include entities beyond the confines of the European state system was initiated. Most importantly, the dual motivations of international institution building-(a) the urge to promote coordinated responses by states to the problems of peaceful intercourse in an era of growing economic, social, and technical interdependence, and (b) the recognition of the necessity for moderating conflict in the political and military spheres became operative in this period.
The establishment of the League of Nations and its affiliate, the International Labour Organisation, at the end of World War One represented the first attempt to combine into one general organization the disparate elements of organizational development which had emerged during the previous century. The League was the first general international organization in several senses: (a) it pulled together the threads of the great-power council, the general conference of statesmen, and the technically oriented international bureau; (b) it was a multipurpose organization, although its primary focus was on the political and security problems of war and peace; and (c) it was, in principle, a world-wide institution, even though it retained much of the nineteenth-century emphasis upon the centrality of Europe in international affairs.
After World War Two, the League was superseded by the United Nations, a general organization which derived its major features from the nineteenth-century heritage and the lessons of experience, both positive and negative, provided by the League. The United Nations was conceived as the central component of a varied and decentralized system of international institutions that would include both autonomous specialized agencies, following the pattern first set by the public international unions, and such regional organizations as existed or might be created by limited groups of states. The organizational design formulated in the United
Nations Charter called for the active coordination of the work of the specialized agencies by the central institution, primarily through the agency of its Economic and Social Council, and the utilization and control of regional agencies, largely through the Security Council.
In actuality, the organizational system of the post-World War Two era has involved the operation of approximately a dozen specialized agencies, many of them newly created, and coordinated with varying degrees of effectiveness by the United Nations. The post-1945 system has also involved the proliferation of regional organizations of every sort, most of them functioning quite independently, without any genuine tie to the central organization. The term "United Nations system" may, therefore, properly be used to refer to the United Nations and the specialized agencies, but it does not embrace the considerable number of regional organizations which have developed independently.
The total network of international institutions also comprises more than one hundred intergovernmental agencies outside the scope of the United Nations system, dealing with a vast range of problems and providing a variety of mechanisms for the conduct of relations among states. These are supplemented by approximately one thousand five hundred nongovernmental organizations which promote international consultation and activity in specialized fields at the unofficial level.
Two. LEAGUE OF NATIONS- AN OVER VIEW
Two. LEAGUE OF NATIONS- AN OVER VIEW
The League of Nations was established at the end of World War One as an international peacekeeping organization. Although US President Woodrow Wilson was an enthusiastic proponent of the League, the United States did not officially join the League of Nations due to opposition from isolationists in Congress.
The League of Nations effectively resolved some international conflicts but failed to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War. World War One was the most destructive conflict in human history, fought in brutal trench warfare conditions and claiming millions of casualties on all sides. The industrial and technological sophistication of weapons created a deadly efficiency of mass slaughter. The nature of the war was thus one of attrition, with each side attempting to wear the other down through a prolonged series of small-scale attacks that frequently resulted in stalemate.
In the immediate aftermath of the war, American and European leaders gathered in Paris to debate and implement far-reaching changes to the pattern of international relations. The League of Nations was seen as the epitome of a new world order based on mutual cooperation and the peaceful resolution of international conflicts.