Research Methods in Psychology Research Methods in Psychology
Chapter Four. Psychological Measurement
About the Authors of the Current Edition
CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The Science of Psychology | One
Science Versus Pseudoscience
The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research in Psychology
The Three Goals of Science
Basic versus Applied Research
Can We Rely on Common Sense?
How Could We Be So Wrong?
Who Conducts Scientific Research in Psychology?
Scientific Psychology Blogs
Empirically Supported Treatments
CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Seven. A Model of Scientific Research in Psychology
Reviewing the Research Literature
Literature Search Strategies
Using Other Search Techniques
Nine. Generating Good Research Questions
Two. Explain what makes a research question interesting and evaluate research questions in terms of their interestingness.
Evaluating Research Questions
Ten. Developing a Hypothesis
Incorporating Theory into Your Research
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
Three. Distinguish between experimental and non-experimental research.
Identifying and Defining the Variables and Population
Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Research
Non-Experimental Research
Laboratory vs. Field Research
Twelve. Analyzing the Data
Thirteen. Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results
Two. Describe why scientists avoid the term "scientific proof."
Fourteen. Key Takeaways and Exercise
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH ETHICS
Fifteen. Moral Foundations of Ethical Research
A Framework for Thinking About Research Ethics
Weighing Risks Against Benefits
Acting Responsibly and With Integrity
Respecting People's Rights and Dignity
Unavoidable Ethical Conflict
APA Ethics Code Standard Eight: Research and Publication
Eight point zero two. Informed Consent to Research
Eight point zero three Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
Eight point zero four Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants
Eight point zero five Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research
Eight point zero six Offering Inducements for Research Participation
Eight point zero eight Debriefing
Eight point ten Reporting Research Results
Eight point eleven Plagiarism
Eight point twelve Publication Credit
Eight point thirteen Duplicate Publication of Data
Eight point fourteen Sharing Research Data for Verification
Eight point fifteen. Reviewers
Seventeen. Putting Ethics Into Practice
Know and Accept Your Ethical Responsibilities
Identify and Minimize Risks
Identify and Minimize Deception
Weigh the Risks Against the Benefits
Create Informed Consent and Debriefing Procedures
Do You Feel You Are a Person of Worth?
Twenty. Reliability and Validity of Measurement
Twenty-one. Practical Strategies for Psychological Measurement
Conceptually Defining the Construct
Operationally Defining the Construct
Using an Existing Measure
Creating Your Own Measure
CHAPTER FIVE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Twenty-three. Experiment Basics
Manipulation of the Independent Variable
Control of Extraneous Variables
Extraneous Variables as "Noise"
Extraneous Variables as Confounding Variables
Treatment and Control Conditions
Twenty-four. Experimental Design
Between-Subjects Experiments
Within-Subjects Experiments
Carryover Effects and Counterbalancing
When Nine is "Larger" Than Two Hundred Twenty-One
Simultaneous Within-Subjects Designs
Between-Subjects or Within-Subjects?
Twenty-five. Experimentation and Validity
Two. Explain what external validity is and evaluate studies in terms of their external validity.
Twenty-six. Practical Considerations
Two. Explain why it is important to standardize the procedure of an experiment and several ways to do this.
Standardizing the Procedure
Experimenter's Sex as an Extraneous Variable
Twenty-seven. Key Takeaways and Exercises
CHAPTER SIX NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Twenty-eight. Overview of Non-Experimental Research
Two. Explain when a researcher might choose to conduct non-experimental research as opposed to experimental research.
When to Use Non-Experimental Research
Types of Non-Experimental Research
Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential Studies
Internal Validity Revisited
What Is Correlational Research?
Does Correlational Research Always Involve Quantitative Variables?
Data Collection in Correlational Research
Correlations Between Quantitative Variables
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation
Exploring Causal Relationships
What Is Qualitative Research?
The Purpose of Qualitative Research
Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
The Quantitative-Qualitative "Debate"
Thirty-two. Observational Research
Two. Describe the strengths and weakness of each observational research method.
CHAPTER SEVEN SURVEY RESEARCH
Thirty-four. Overview of Survey Research
Two. Describe several different ways that survey research can be used and give some examples.
History and Uses of Survey Research
One. Describe the cognitive processes involved in responding to a survey item.
Three. Create a simple survey questionnaire based on principles of effective item writing and organization.
Survey Responding as a Psychological Process
Context Effects on Survey Responses
Sample Size and Population Size
Thirty-seven. Key Takeaways and Exercises
CHAPTER EIGHT QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Thirty-eight. One-Group Designs
One-Group Posttest Only Design
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Interrupted Time Series Design
Thirty-nine. Non-Equivalent Groups Designs
Two. Identify some of the threats to internal validity associated with each of these designs.
Posttest Only Nonequivalent Groups Design
Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Groups Design
Interrupted Time-Series Design with Nonequivalent Groups
Pretest-Posttest Design With Switching Replication
Switching Replication with Treatment Removal Design
Forty. Key Takeaways and Exercises
CHAPTER NINE FACTORIAL DESIGNS
Forty-one. Setting Up a Factorial Experiment
Non-Manipulated Independent Variables
Non-Experimental Studies With Factorial Designs
Forty-two. Interpreting the Results of a Factorial Experiment
Two. Sketch and interpret bar graphs and line graphs showing the results of studies with simple factorial designs.
Graphing the Results of Factorial Experiments
Forty-three. Key Takeaways and Exercises
CHAPTER TEN SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH
Forty-four. Overview of Single-Subject Research
What Is Single-Subject Research?
Assumptions of Single-Subject Research
Who Uses Single-Subject Research?
Forty-five. Single-Subject Research Designs
Two. Design simple single-subject studies using reversal and multiple-baseline designs.
Four. Interpret the results of simple single-subject studies based on the visual inspection of graphed data.
Multiple-Baseline Designs
Multiple-Baseline Design Across Participants
Multiple-Baseline Design Across Behaviors
Multiple-Baseline Design Across Settings
Data Analysis in Single-Subject Research
Forty-six. The Single-Subject Versus Group "Debate"
Single-Subject and Group Research as Complementary Methods
The Principle of Converging Evidence
CHAPTER ELEVEN PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH
Forty-eight. American Psychological Association Style
Two. Identify three levels of APA style and give examples of each.
APA Style and the Values of Psychology
Online APA Style Resources
APA-Style References and Citations
Sections of a Research Report
Appendices, Tables, and Figures
Sample APA-Style Research Report
Fifty. Other Presentation Formats
Other Types of Manuscripts
Review and Theoretical Articles
CHAPTER TWELVE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Fifty-two. Describing Single Variables
The Distribution of a Variable
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
Percentile Ranks and Z scores
Online Descriptive Statistics
Fifty-three. Describing Statistical Relationships
Differences Between Groups or Conditions
Sex Differences Expressed as Cohen's d
Correlations Between Quantitative Variables
Fifty-four. Expressing Your Results
Two. Interpret and create simple American Psychological Association-style figures-including bar graphs, line graphs, and scatterplots.
Presenting Descriptive Statistics in Writing
Presenting Descriptive Statistics in Figures
Expressing Descriptive Statistics in Tables
One. Describe the steps involved in preparing and analyzing a typical set of raw data.
Prepare Your Data for Analysis
Planned and Exploratory Analyses
Understand Your Descriptive Statistics
Fifty-six. Key Takeaways and Exercises
CHAPTER THIRTEEN INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Fifty-seven. Understanding Null Hypothesis Testing
The Purpose of Null Hypothesis Testing
The Logic of Null Hypothesis Testing
The Misunderstood P Value
Role of Sample Size and Relationship Strength
Statistical Significance Versus Practical Significance
Fifty-eight. Some Basic Null Hypothesis Tests
Example One-Sample t-Test
The Dependent-Samples t-Test
Example Dependent-Samples t-Test
The Independent-Samples t-Test
Example Independent-Samples t-Test
Testing Correlation Coefficients
Example Test of a Correlation Coefficient
Fifty-nine. Additional Considerations
Errors in Null Hypothesis Testing
Problems With Null Hypothesis Testing, and Some Solutions
Criticisms of Null Hypothesis Testing
Did replicate match original's results?
Disguised participant observation
Disproportionate stratified random sampling
Empirical research report
Empirical research reports
Empirically supported treatments
Experimental analysis of behavior
Experimenter expectancy effect
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
Greater than minimal risk research
Hypothetico-deductive method
Independent-samples t-test
Institutional review board
Interrupted time-series design
Interrupted time-series design with nonequivalent group
The average of a distribution of scores, where the sum of the scores is divided by the number of scores.
An estimate of the population variance and is based on the differences among the sample means.
An estimate of the population variance and is based on the differences among the scores within each group.
The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Involves measuring several variables, and using them to predict some outcome variable.
In this design the baseline phase is followed by separate phases in which different treatments are introduced.
An observational method that involves observing people's behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs.
A relationship in which higher scores on one variable tend to be associated with lower scores on the other.
The condition in which participants receive no treatment whatsoever.
A measurement used for categorical variables and involves assigning scores that are category labels.
A research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable.
An independent variable that is measured but is non-manipulated.
Occurs when there is a systemic difference between survey non-responders from survey responders.
A between-subjects design in which participants have not been randomly assigned to conditions.
A formal approach to deciding between two interpretations of a statistical relationship in a sample.
Outcome variable or Criterion variable
Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (or Pearson's r)
Percentage of non-overlapping data
Placebo control condition
Posttest only nonequivalent groups design
Pretest-posttest design with switching replication design
Pretest-posttest nonequivalent groups design
Proportionate stratified random sampling
Randomized clinical trial
Reject the null hypothesis
Retain the null hypothesis
Single factor multi level design
Single factor two-level design
Socially desirable responding
Statistically significant
Stratified random sampling
Switching replication with treatment removal design
A test that involves looking at the difference between two means.
A review article that is devoted primarily to presenting a new theory.
A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena.
Accepting that there are many things that we simply do not know.
Any intervention meant to change people's behavior for the better.
The condition in which participants receive the treatment.
Where we reject the null hypothesis if the test statistic for the sample is extreme in either direction (plus or minus).
A missed opportunity in which the researcher concludes that their results are not statistically
Undisguised naturalistic observation
Undisguised participant observation
Wait-list control condition
Within-subjects experiment